Fresh ideas are needed in every discipline. Fresh ideas emanating from different perspectives may benefit current students of public administration--students who are presumed to become tomorrow’s practitioners. Thus, in this paper, a different approach to public administration is offered by looking through the lens of American filmmakers. Four films are reviewed followed by a discussion of their relevance to the field of public administration—theory and practice. The films are NELL, ABSENCE OF MALICE, NORMA RAE, and PATTON.

The 2000 ASPA Conference encourages an exploration of practitioner/scholar relations with the goal of improving government and public sector service. Thus, in this paper public administration is viewed through the lens of American filmmakers. It is suggested that complex public administration concepts and theories may be illustrated through selected films.

The literature, the concepts, the films

Contemporary films invite students to critically think about the world around them. Moreover, films encourage students to reflect on issues salient to public administration and public service. To this point, McCurdy (1995) suggests that fiction and imagination influence public policies and their implementation. Included in his list of fiction are novels, cinema, television drama, and theatre, as well as paintings, theme parks, and popular science. He suggests that fiction and imagination affect public policy by entering ideas into the public consciousness. McCurdy examines fiction and mental institutions, imagination and the U.S. space program, and the National Performance Review. He describes ways in which fiction and imagination influence public policies and public programs. He credits Ken Kesey’s One Flew Over the Cuckoo’s Nest (R-1975) and Miracle on 34^th Street (1947, 1973, and 1994) with helping to raise public awareness of the plight and institutionalization of the mentally ill. Students of public administration may benefit from these, and other, fictionalized sources depicting public program implementation. Films such as Nell and Girl Interrupted offer more contemporary views of public administrators and public institutions. Nell is reviewed in a later section of this paper.

Similarly, it is argued that credible fiction enables students to gain valuable insights from different perceptions of events and situations (Kroll 1965; Marini 1992). Marini suggests that, "…by reading imaginative literature, students may gain not only a knowledge of what we consider key issues for our field, but also an empathetic grasp or vicarious experience of these issues," (p. 113). One caveat that should be raised here is that films are fiction and fiction can be used as propaganda, thus the need to exercise caution when using films in the classroom. Such a discussion is, however, beyond the scope of this paper. The point is that films can be used to impart information, and from this information, students may come to better understand the concepts used to build theories of public administration—theories pertaining to organizational culture, human motivation, and leadership.

As suggested earlier, numerous concepts are salient to the field of public administration, public policies, and public program implementation. Among these are ‘the public interest,’ discretionary authority, advocacy, delegation of authority, public accountability, ethics, representative bureaucracy, and equitable delivery of public services. Illustrating the scope of some of these concepts, Lipsky (1980) suggests that:

Films may help to illustrate the boundaries and constraints of delivering scarce public goods and services. If future public administrators are expected to be advocates for their clients—how do we help them learn to set appropriate limits? In other words, what must students of public administration know to administer public programs effectively, efficiently, and ethically? Do theories about organizational culture, motivation, and leadership seem more relevant when illustrated in films? In sum, scenarios depicted in films may help to prepare individuals for public service. Films may direct students’ attention to the concepts, theories, and issues involved in the study and practice of public administration.

The movie Nell (PG-13) illustrates a few concepts and raises important issues salient to the field of public administration. The 1994 movie stars Jodie Foster, Liam Neeson, and Natasha Richardson. Foster portrays Nell, a woman discovered living

alone in an isolated cabin in the woods. Nell has been left alone after the death of her mother—a stroke victim. Her plight is discovered by a small town doctor (Neeson)

and a research scientist (Richardson). The two professionals compete to gather information about Nell—how she lives and how she communicates. This competition drives them to install hidden microphones and cameras

the other of exploiting Nell for their own gain—publishing research results, gaining

fame and fortune for taming a "wild child," and, thus, making headlines.

Nell encourages students to reflect upon the limits of administrative authority, client advocacy, and the ethics of doing public service. The film’s use of a case study may make these concepts more relevant and, thus, increase understanding and knowledge about the ethical, professional, political, and human dimensions of delivering public goods and services. Moreover, the film raises a few important questions students of public administrators must ask themselves—questions they must answer if they are to act in the public interest. Questions such as: Have I overstepped my administrative authority? Have I been fair? Have I acted ethically? Can the decisions I make be justified? Will my behavior withstand public scrutiny? Am I acting in the best interest of the public? The film is thought provoking and thoughts provoked sometimes yield solutions.

Nell also illuminates what Lipsky (1980) means by the term "street-level bureaucrats." Public servants, he suggests, "…are expected to exercise discretionary judgment in their field. They are regularly deferred to in their specialized areas of work and are relatively free from supervision by superiors or scrutiny by clients" (p.14). The professional administrators portrayed by Foster and Neeson confront this exact situation—the decisions they make are not publicly scrutinized and "…are not reducible to programmed formats" (p.15). They have tremendous discretionary authority—to recommend that Nell be institutionalized or to advocate for her to remain free. The movie makes it clear that Nell cannot speak for herself. Students are encouraged to ask who should be held accountable for the decisions made on her behalf?

Public accountability is an element that distinguishes public sector agencies from the private sector. But, just what is meant by public accountability? Caiden (1988) says, "To be accountable is to answer for one’s responsibilities, to report, to explain, to give reasons, to respond, to assume obligations, to render a reckoning and to submit to an outside or external judgment" (p. 25). More succinctly, Lipsky suggests that, "Accountability is the link between bureaucracy and democracy" (p.160). Similarly, Lowi (1969) feared the delegation of too much administrative authority--that authority given to administrators not elected by the people--undermines two democratic principles, those of accountability and responsibility. The concern is that unelected administrators cannot be held directly accountable to the public as they dispense public goods and services. In response, Nakamura (1980) asserts that the formulation of clear guidelines and standards for administrative behavior may help to minimize the potential for administrative abuse. Students of public administration should be reminded that although they are not directly accountable to the public in the same way that elected officials are held accountable—they are, nonetheless, bound by professional constraints, including codes of ethics. Nearly all fifty states have codes of ethics (Denhardt 1988). Denhardt asserts that, "…administrators can learn something from these codes about the construct within which they are expected to act as public administrators" (p.127.)

In Nell, Neeson’s and Richardson’s characters are held accountable by the courts, to some extent by the competition each represents to the other, as well as by the press. Like watchdogs, the omnipresent press is there to tell Nell’s story. Several scenes encourage the audience to decide whether the caregivers should be held accountable for their decisions and to judge whether they have over-stepped the boundaries of administrative authority. Thus, the film addresses several concepts salient to the field of public administration. Among the concepts illustrated are public accountability, advocacy, discretionary or administrative authority, and ethics in public service.

Absence of Malice (PG-1981) stars Paul Newman, Sally Fields, and Wilford Brimley. Fields portrays a reporter who is duped into printing a false story by an over-zealous government attorney. Her story discredits an innocent construction worker

played by Newman. Newman’s character is suspected of having ties to organized

crime. Newman confronts Fields and questions her sources. Fields, and the paper’s attorney, hide behind First Amendment privileges. In a riveting exchange, between

even with the paper.

At the film’s conclusion, Wilford Brimley emerges as a highly ethical

public administrator. He delivers an unforgettable lecture to over-reaching government employees who illegally install wiretaps on Newman’s telephone line. Brimley’s no-nonsense character has integrity. He takes seriously his responsibilities as a public steward. Stewardship, says Kass (1990) is, "…acting for someone else in a

sense of ethics. "Ethics," suggests Lewis (1991), "must not be reserved for experts

or philosophers. If practitioners do not practice it and if decision makers ignore it,

then public service and the public are in real trouble" (p.101). The difference

between ethical and unethical practices is made clear in this film. The scene between Brimley and government employees who are trying to get at Newman opens a discussion of professional ethics. Additionally, the film engenders a discussion of the power of the press and media relations.

Public administration concepts illustrated in Absence of Malice are ethics, power of the press, accountability, stewardship, and discretionary authority. Students viewing the film are reminded of the importance of establishing good relationships with the media—electronic and print. What questions must they be prepared to answer during an interview? How does one go about establishing a respectful relationship with the press? How does one deal with agency controversy? These are skills that students of public administration must learn when preparing to administer public programs. Films may be seen as augmenting the use of case studies (Kroll 1965). The International City/County Management Association (ICMA) cases, for example, illustrate a variety of situations that confront administrators and elected officials. Students study the cases and role play the various administrators involved and try to arrive at a satisfactory resolution to the problem(s). Films may be viewed as working in much the same way as ICMA cases--with actors portraying various situations that may arise in the administration of public programs.

Two final films are described in this paper, Norma Rae and Patton. These films are examples of situational leadership and positional leadership, respectively. Norma

Rae (PG-1979) stars Sally Fields and Beau Bridges. In an Oscar-winning performance,

character is an unlikely candidate to emerge in a leadership role. However,

the situation requires that she step forward and advocate for worker’s rights. Bennis suggests that, "…more leaders have been made by accident, circumstances, and sheer will than have been made by all the leadership courses." He insists that, "True leaders

are not born but made, and not made as much by others as by themselves" (p.37).

Norma Rae is small, uncertain, and unsophisticated. Nothing in her background

has prepared her to lead. Patton--bold, brash, and confidant--is a polished military

field officer.

Patton (M/PG, 1970) won seven academy awards, including Best Picture,

Actor, Director, Screenplay (Francis Ford Coppola and Edmund North). The film

stars George C. Scott and Karl Malden. Scotts’ character, General George Patton, is

authority. Gini (1998) argues that, "All forms of leadership must make use of power. However, power need not be coercive, dictatorial, or punitive to be effective."

Several scenes in Patton illustrate the lengths to which General Patton uses coercion

and punitive methods to manipulate, control, and lead. Gini continues by asserting that, "Power can also be used in a non-coercive manner to orchestrate, mobilize, direct, and guide members of an institution or organization in the pursuit of a goal or series of objectives," (p.7). Unlike Patton, Norma Rae lacks official authority, yet she is shown orchestrating, mobilizing, guiding, directing, and cajoling her co-workers in the pursuit of a single goal—unionization. In sum, she exhibits a more intuitive, task oriented, shared power approach to leadership and a willingness to comprise and seek conciliation as suggested by studies about women managers (Fox & Shuhmann, 1999; Rosener, 1995; Lunneborg, 1990; Billing and Alvesson, 1994; Gilligan, 1982: Guy, 1992).

Norma Rae and Patton may be used to illustrate situations that students, as leaders of public organizations, may find themselves. Neither situation is a mirror-image of public organizations, nonetheless, administrators of public agencies may come face-to-face with grass root leaders fighting for workers rights or neighborhood activists protesting the building of a jail in their backyard—the NIMBY syndrome. Students may benefit from seeing films that focus on neighborhood and workplace problems organized by grass root efforts. Moreover, many government agencies have organized unions and students need to understand the root of employee dissatisfaction. If they are to assume leadership positions in public organizations, students need to know that public employees have rights. Private sector clashes sometimes are mirrored in public sector agencies. On the question of leadership, the movie Patton helps students to understand that their ability to lead often emanates from the positions they occupy in public agencies. Students and practitioners should understand that with the power, title, and privileges bestowed upon them, by virtue of the public offices they hold, come public responsibilities. The films discussed here reinforce this point.

This paper examines how American films may be used to illustrate and illuminate public administration concepts and theories for better understanding. Four films were reviewed: Nell, Absence of Malice, Norma Rae, and Patton. It is suggested that these films illustrate concepts such as ‘the public interest,’ discretionary authority, public accountability, advocacy, ethics, power of the press, and situation and positional leadership. Concepts such as these form the foundation of theories about public administration, including theories surrounding organizational culture, human motivation, and leadership. It is suggested that films illustrate concepts for greater understanding and communication in the practice of public administration. Films, and other forms of fiction and imagination, have the potential for influencing public policies and programs by introducing ideas into the public consciousness, thus making the public more aware of situations, programs, and events that may affect them. Moreover, films have the potential for influencing public perceptions of public administrators and public agencies—positively or negatively. On the positive side, films may help to build knowledge by illuminating salient concepts that provide the foundation for theories relating to the field of public administration. Films may provide reminders to current practitioners that they are under constant scrutiny by the ubiquitous lens of the filmmaker. Finally, films may help to prepare students to be better administrators by making them aware of how public administrators and public agencies are portrayed in films, literature, and other forms of fiction.

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NELL Ethics, discretionary authority, accountability

THE ABSENCE OF MALICE Power of the press, ethics, abuse of authority

CITIZEN KANE Ethics, leadership, power of the press

PATTON Leadership, ethics, abuse of authority

WAG THE DOG Executive privilege, ethics, separation of powers

ALL THE PRESIDENT’S MEN Power of the press, ethics, accountability

NORMA RAE Grassroots politics, leadership, gender differences

HIS GIRL FRIDAY Discretionary authority, ethics

BRINGING UP BABY Ethics, discretionary authority

MEET JOHN DOE Political movement and control of movements

TWELVE ANGRY MEN Group processes and decision-making

KING OF MASKS Foreign policy, impact of culture on policy,

Gender discrimination.