This panel is comprised of scholars and practitioners from diverse disciplines: public administration, communication, politics, and journalism. The composition of the panel reflects a commitment to and a belief in the value of interdisciplinary studies and the sharing of information and ideas. Fresh ideas are needed in every discipline. Fresh ideas emanating from multiple perspectives and multiple works may benefit today’s students who will become tomorrow’s practitioners. Thus, in this panel, and in this paper, we offer a different approach to viewing public administration—theory and practice—as seen through the lens of American filmmakers. Papers addressing the topic are presented under the same title, but each provides a different perspective of selected American films—NELL, ABSENCE OF MALICE, NORMA RAE, and PATTON. Varying perspectives come from scholars in public administration and communication, a journalist, a legislative aide, and an MPA graduate student.

This paper addresses four questions: Can contemporary films be used to illustrate concepts that are the coin of the realm in public administration theories and practice—concepts such as ‘the public interest,’ discretionary authority, public accountability, advocacy, ethics, representative bureaucracy, and leadership? How do we make theory relevant? How do we illustrate concepts for greater understanding and communication? How do we build knowledge in this larger, faster, media rich environment?

Today, the Thirteenth Annual Conference of the Public Administration Theory Network invites us to break down the "silos" of academia and make a greater effort to draw on the experiences and ideas of practitioners and scholars from other disciplines. We are invited to build interdisciplinary relationships that are beneficial to students of public administration. Thus, in this panel we offer an interdisciplinary approach to viewing public administration—its concepts and theories as illustrated in American film.

Participants contributing to this discussion come from different disciplines. They do not necessarily agree. However, an interdisciplinary dialogue has begun by using a common medium—film—to discuss how public administration concepts and theories can be illustrated through movies. Over-riding questions addressed by panelists are: Have filmmakers captured the essence of public administrators, public officials, public programs, and public policy? Do films make concepts understandable and theory more relevant to students?

The literature, the concepts, the films

In this panel, participants discuss how films may invite students to critically think about the world around them. Students must learn more than the nuts and bolts of public administration. They must learn to become reflective scholars (Weschler 1995). They ought to be encouraged to reflect on some of the important issues of public administration. Films may be considered contemporary tools that encourage students to be more reflective.

McCurdy (1995) argues that fiction and imagination influence public policies and their implementation. Included in his list of fiction, that influences public policies and public programs, are novels, cinema, television drama, and theatre, as well as paintings, theme parks, and popular science. He suggests that fiction and imagination affect public policy by entering ideas into the public consciousness. McCurdy examines fiction and mental institutions, imagination and the U.S. space program, and the National Performance Review. He describes ways in which fiction and imagination influence public policies and public programs. He credits Ken Kesey’s One Flew Over the Cuckoo’s Nest (R-1975) and Miracle on 34^th Street (1947, 1973, and 1994) with helping to raise public awareness of the plight and institutionalization of the mentally ill. Students of public administration may benefit from these, and other, fictionalized sources depicting public program implementation.

Similarly, Kroll (1965) and Marini (1992) suggest that so long as the fiction is credible, students may gain valuable insights from different perceptions of events and situations. Marini suggests that, "…by reading imaginative literature, students may gain not only a knowledge of what we consider key issues for our field, but also an empathetic grasp or vicarious experience of these issues," (p. 113). One caveat that cannot be overlooked, and should be mentioned, is that films are fiction and fiction can be used to propagandize, thus the need to exercise caution when using films in the classroom. However, such a discussion is beyond the scope of this paper. The point to be made here is that films can impart knowledge and from this the student may better understand complex concepts which are the foundation of public administration theories—theories about organizational culture, human motivation, and leadership.

As suggested earlier, numerous concepts are salient to the field of public administration, public policies, and public program implementation: ‘the public interest,’ discretionary authority, advocacy, delegation of authority, public accountability, ethics, representative bureaucracy, and equitable delivery of public services. Lipsky (1980) illustrates the scope of some of these concepts in Street Level Bureaucracy, suggesting that:

Films may help to illustrate the boundaries and constraints of delivering scarce public goods and services. If future public administrators are expected to be advocates for their clients—how do we help them learn to set reasonable limits? In other words, what must students of public administration know to administer public programs effectively, efficiently, and ethically? Do theories about organizational culture, motivation, and leadership seem more relevant when illustrated in films? In sum, scenarios depicted in films may help to prepare them for public service. Films may direct students’ attention to the concepts, theories, and issues involved in the study of public administration.

The movie Nell (PG-13) illustrates some of these concepts and issues. The 1994 movie stars Jodie Foster, Liam Neeson, and Natasha Richardson. Foster portrays Nell, a woman discovered living alone in the woods after the death of her mother—a stroke victim. Her plight is discovered by a well-intentioned, small town, Southern doctor (Neeson) and a research scientist (Richardson) whose caring and professional

competition drives them to install microphones and hidden cameras to document

and report how Nell lives and communicates in her isolated world.

the other of exploiting Nell for their own gain—publishing research results,

gaining fame and fortune for taming a "wild child," and, thus, making headlines.

Nell encourages students to reflect upon the limits of administrative authority,

advocacy, and the ethics of doing public service. The film’s use of a case study may make concepts more relevant and, thus, increase understanding and knowledge about the human dimensions of delivering scarce public goods and services. Moreover, the film raises a few important questions students of public administrators must ask themselves—questions they must answer if they are to act in the public interest. Questions such as: Have I overstepped my authority? Have I been fair? Can the decisions I make be justified? Will my behavior withstand public scrutiny? Am I acting in the best public interest? The film is thought provoking and thoughts provoked may yield solutions.

Nell also illuminates what Lipsky (1980) means by the term "street-level bureaucrats." Public servants, he suggests, "…are expected to exercise discretionary judgment in their field. They are regularly deferred to in their specialized areas of work and are relatively free from supervision by superiors or scrutiny by clients" (p.14). The professional administrators portrayed by Foster and Neeson confront this exact situation—the decisions they make are not publicly scrutinized and "…are not reducible to programmed formats" (p.15). They have tremendous discretionary authority—to recommend that Nell be institutionalized or to advocate for her to remain free. The movie makes it clear that Nell cannot speak for herself. Students are encouraged to ask who should be held accountable for the decisions made on her behalf?

Public accountability is one element that distinguishes public sector agencies from the private sector. But, just what is meant by public accountability? Caiden (1988) says, "To be accountable is to answer for one’s responsibilities, to report, to explain, to give reasons, to respond, to assume obligations, to render a reckoning and to submit to an outside or external judgment" (p. 25). More succinctly, Lipsky suggests that, "Accountability is the link between bureaucracy and democracy" (p.160). Lowi (1969) feared the delegation of too much administrative authority--that authority given to administrators not elected by the people--undermines two important democratic principles: accountability and responsibility. It is suggested that those who administer public programs cannot be held directly accountable to the public. In response, Nakamura (1980) asserts that formulating clear standards for administrative behavior helps to minimize the potential for abuse. Students of public administration should know that although they are not directly accountable to the public in the same way that elected officials are held accountable—they are, nonetheless, bound by constraints, including professional codes of ethics. Nearly all fifty states have codes of ethics (Denhardt 1988). Denhardt argues that, "…administrators can learn something from these codes about the construct within which they are expected to act as public administrators" (p.127.)

In Nell, Neeson’s and Richardson’s characters are held accountable to some extent by the competition each represents to the other and to some extent by the press. Like watchdogs, the omnipresent press is there to tell Nell’s story. Numerous scenes encourage the audience to decide whether the caregivers ought to be held accountable for their decisions and to judge whether they have over-stepped the boundaries of administrative authority. Thus, the film addresses concepts salient to the field of public administration. Among these are public accountability, discretionary or administrative authority, and ethics.

Absence of Malice (PG-1981) stars Paul Newman, Sally Fields, and Wilford Brimley. Fields portrays a reporter who is duped into printing a false story by an over-zealous government attorney. Her story discredits an innocent construction worker

played by Newman. Newman’s character is suspected of having ties to organized

crime. Newman confronts Fields and questions her sources. Fields, and the paper’s attorney, hide behind First Amendment privileges. In a riveting exchange, between

even with the paper.

At the film’s conclusion, Wilford Brimley emerges as a highly ethical

public administrator. He delivers an unforgettable lecture to over-reaching government employees who illegally install wiretaps on Newman’s telephone line. Brimley’s no-nonsense character has integrity. He takes seriously his responsibilities as a public steward. Stewardship, says Kass (1990) is, "…acting for someone else in a

sense of ethics. "Ethics," suggests Lewis (1991), "must not be reserved for experts

or philosophers. If practitioners do not practice it and if decision makers ignore it,

then public service and the public are in real trouble" (p.101). The difference

between ethical and unethical practices is made clear in this film. The scene between Brimley and government employees who are trying to get at Newman opens a discussion of professional ethics. Additionally, the film engenders a discussion of the power of the press and media relations.

Public administration concepts illustrated in Absence of Malice are ethics, power of the press, accountability, stewardship, and discretionary authority. Students viewing the film are reminded of the importance of establishing good relationships with the media—electronic and print. What questions must they be prepared to answer during an interview? How does one go about establishing a relationship with the press? How does one deal with agency controversy? These are skills that students of public administration must learn when preparing to administer public programs. Films may be seen as augmenting the use of case studies (Kroll 1965). The International City/County Management Association (ICMA) cases, for example, illustrate a variety of situations that confront administrators and elected officials. Students study the cases and role play the various administrators involved and try to arrive at a satisfactory resolution to the problem(s). Films may be viewed as working in much the same way as ICMA cases--with actors portraying various situations that may arise in the administration of public programs.

Two final films are described in this paper, Norma Rae and Patton. These films are examples of situational leadership and positional leadership, respectively. Norma

Rae (PG-1979) stars Sally Fields and Beau Bridges. In an Oscar-winning performance,

character is an unlikely candidate to emerge in a leadership role. However,

the situation requires that she step forward and advocate for worker’s rights. Bennis suggests that, "…more leaders have been made by accident, circumstances, and sheer will than have been made by all the leadership courses." He insists that, "True leaders

are not born but made, and not made as much by others as by themselves" (p.37).

Norma Rae is small, uncertain, and unsophisticated. Nothing in her background

has prepared her to lead. Patton--bold, brash, and confidant--is a polished military

field officer.

Patton (M/PG, 1970) won seven academy awards, including Best Picture,

Actor, Director, Screenplay (Francis Ford Coppola and Edmund North). The film

stars George C. Scott and Karl Malden. Scotts’ character, General George Patton, is

authority. Gini (1998) argues that, "All forms of leadership must make use of power. However, power need not be coercive, dictatorial, or punitive to be effective. Power

can also be used in a non-coercive manner to orchestrate, mobilize, direct, and guide members of an institution or organization in the pursuit of a goal or series of

objectives," (p.7). Unlike Patton, Norma Rae lacks official authority, yet she is shown orchestrating, mobilizing, guiding, directing, and cajoling her co-workers in the pursuit of a single goal—unionization. In sum, she exhibits a more intuitive, task oriented, shared power approach to leadership and a willingness to comprise and seek conciliation as suggested by studies about women managers (Fox & Shuhmann, 1999; Rosener, 1995; Lunneborg, 1990; Billing and Alvesson, 1994; Gilligan, 1982: Guy, 1992).

Norma Rae and Patton exemplify situations that students, as leaders of public organizations, may find themselves. Administrators of public organizations may come face-to-face with grass root leaders fighting for workers rights or neighborhood activists protesting the building of a jail in their backyard—the NIMBY syndrome. Students may benefit from seeing films that focus on neighborhood and workplace problems organized by grass root efforts. Moreover, many government agencies have organized unions and students need to understand the root of employee dissatisfaction. If they are to assume leadership positions in public organizations, students need to know that public employees have rights. Private sector clashes sometimes are mirrored in public sector agencies. On the question of leadership, the movie Patton helps students to understand that their ability to lead often emanates from the positions they hold in public agencies. They should understand that with the power, title, and privileges bestowed upon them--by virtue of the public offices they hold--come public responsibilities.

Examples of how American film may be used to illustrate concepts found in theories of public administration are provided in this paper. The films discussed include Nell, Absence of Malice, Norma Rae, and Patton. It is suggested that these films help to illustrate what is meant by concepts such as ‘the public interest,’ discretionary authority, public accountability, advocacy, ethics, power of the press, and various forms of leadership. These concepts are found in theories of organizational culture, human motivation, and leadership. It is suggested that films may help to illustrate concepts for greater understanding and communication in the practice of public administration. It is suggested that films help to build knowledge by facilitating the comprehension of complex concepts that provide the foundation for theories of public administration.

This paper is one of five presenting different perspectives of the same topic. Other papers provide the views of a professor of communication, a journalist, a legislative assistant to an elected official, and an MPA graduate student. Each participant has addressed the question of whether films may be used to illustrate concepts salient to public programs, public policies, and public officials. These collective views may illuminate the possibilities of using film to make concepts understandable and theory relevant. Papers are available by visiting the PATNET conference website: www.pat-net.org.

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Denhardt, K. (1988). The Ethics of Public Service. New York: Greenwood Press.

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Gini, A. (1998). "Moral Leadership: An Overview." Contemporary Issues in Leadership, pp. 5-16. (William E. Rosenbach, Robert L. Taylor, eds.) Boulder, CO: Westview Press.

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Kass, H. (1990). "Stewardship as a Fundamental Element in Images of Public Administration." Images and Identities in Public Administration. (Henry D. Kass, Bayard L.Catron, eds.) Newbury Park: Sage Publications.

Kroll, M. "Administrative Fiction and Credibility." Public Administration Review, 25 (1965): 80-84.

Lewis, C. (1991). The Ethics Challenge in Public Service: A Problem-Solving Guide. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers.

Lipsky, M. (1980). Street-Level Bureaucracy. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.

Lowi, T. (1969). The End of Liberalism. New York: Norton Publishers.

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Marini, F. "The Use of Literature in the Exploration of Public Administration Ethics: The Example of Antigone." Public Administration Review, 52 (1992): 420-425.

Marini, F. "Literature and Public Administration Ethics." American Review of Public Administration, 22 (1992): 111-125.

Maltin, L. (1999). Movie & Video Guide. New York: SIGNET.

McCurdy, H. E. (1995). "Fiction and Imagination: How They Affect Public Administration." Public Administration Review, November/December, Vol. 55.

Nakamura, R., Smallwood, F. (1980). The Politics of Implementation. New York: St. Martin’s Press.

Rosener, J (1995). America’s Competitive. New York: Oxford University Press.

Schuhmann, R. A., Fox, R. L. (1998). "Women Chief Administrative Officers." The Municipal Yearbook. Washington, DC: International City Management Association.

NELL Ethics, discretionary authority, accountability

THE ABSENCE OF MALICE Power of the press, ethics, abuse of authority

CITIZEN KANE Ethics, leadership, power of the press

PATTON Leadership, ethics, abuse of authority

WAG THE DOG Executive privilege, ethics, separation of powers

ALL THE PRESIDENT’S MEN Power of the press, ethics, accountability

NORMA RAE Grassroots politics, leadership, gender differences

HIS GIRL FRIDAY Discretionary authority, ethics

BRINGING UP BABY Ethics, discretionary authority

MEET JOHN DOE Political movement and control of movements

TWELVE ANGRY MEN Group processes and decision-making

KING OF MASKS Foreign policy, impact of culture on policy,

Gender discrimination.